Edward Lee Thorndike And His Behaviour Experiments

Edward lee side Thorndike And His Behaviour ExperimentsPrior to Edward Lee Thorndikes landmark experimental analysis of demeanour in 1898, the study of the psychology of erudition lacked a clear, defined inquiry methodology. Research markings were very a good deal subjective, lacking the quantitative evidence that would give them scientific credence and avoiding imprecision and ambiguities in their interpretation. People were asked to look inside their minds and describe what they were conceptualizeing. (Ormrod, 2008). This method was cal direct introspection, which by its very nature, is devoid of objectiveness.Thus emerged Thorndikes groundbreaking circumvent box experiments with throw offs, dogs, and razzs, culminating in his doctoral dissertation on savage intelligence in 1898. with his experiments, the study of eruditeness took on a more objective lift, where the stress was on the observables quite than the non-observables. The basis of his experiments was that assoil is an observable phenomenon and then is measurable. It lead to the birth of the behaviorist movement where research looked primarily at conduct rather than cognition, given that mental processes (like insight or introspection) can non be objectively measured with any level of reliability.2. Thorndikes Experiments (Task (a) of Assignment)To circumvent the subjective nature of research then, Thorndike developed many experiments on the eruditeness phenomenon whose proceedss were beyond subjective interpretations. The psyche behind them was to take in the demeanor of a hungry creature detain in cohere boxes in its fire to break. He conducted the experiments development triplet carnals, viz. cuckoos, dogs, and chicks. Food, functioning as the temptation f r discloseineor (stimulus), was placed outside the box in full view of the puppet.He started with a contrive. For it to break off, the mould had to manipulate a device that would open the door in tack to get at the food. in that location were alin concert 15 of these boxes, each with antithetic go mechanisms, ranging from a wire cringle, lever, and a treadle which had to be demoralize for it to escape. The variety of mechanisms was (presumably) to observe any consistency in behavioural regularity despite the variables presented by the escape devices.In its attempts to escape, Thorndike closely observed the cat initiating numerous, app arntly random movements, seemingly rallyn by impulse rather than reason. Through the cats struggles, it would in conclusion trigger the mercantile establishment mechanism. This was achieved more by possibility done trial and error rather than by any profound action of the cat.The cat was repeatedly put into the box. Thorndike observed that what was initially random and chaotic behaviour became relatively more orderly and economic. In former(a) words, he noticed gross changes in behaviour when the akin tick situation was repeated. In a ddition, he recorded the duration it took for the cat to escape from its confinement. He then plotted a time-curve graph which enabled him to not as yet analyse the animals speed of learnedness, save also the yard of learning.Thorndike repeated the same complicate box experiment with dogs and chicks, with minor practical adjustments to the procedure. Again, time-curves were plotted and comp bed to those exhibited by the cats.However, in any(prenominal) experiments, Thorndike varied the escape mode. Instead of the animal physically manipulating a release device, he would, for example, remove a chick from a box whenever it preened its feathers or he would open the door when a cat licked or scratched itself. He observed that the chick started preening itself when it was re-placed into the box, indicating the animals instinctive proneness to be let out of the box. Time curves were plotted and compared to the curves obtained by the escape device mode.There were also certain ea rly(a) variations in the behavior the experiments were conducted. One such variation was placing the same cat that was used in a special(a) box into another differently designed box. He then observed how the cat reacted to the changed environment. In another variation, Thorndike allowed the animal to observe another member of its species in its attempt to escape. He wanted to find out if animals could learn by imitation.3. Summary of Main Findings (Task (a) of Assignment)3.1 OverviewThe overarching finding of Thorndikes experiments was that on that point are receipts (explicit behavioural changes) when there is a stimulus (food). In that sense, there is a stimulus- answer (S-R) connection in how animals learn. How well the animals learnt is determined by the cognize it gained from the same experiment conducted repeatedly. In effect, this perspective of learning (connectionism) emphasized the berth of cognize in the strengthening and weakening of the S-R connections. In gener al, it could be state that the essence of intellectual development depends on how strong this S-R connection is.The main findings from Thorndikes experiments in animal intelligence would form the basis for his formulation of theories join to learning. They led to further research into the more complex intellectual abilities of humans, eventually leading to the development of modern era comparative psychology.3.2 Findings from the ExperimentsThe main findings from Thorndikes puzzle box experiments can be summarized below3.2.1 Gross changes in behaviourWhen presented with a stimulus (S), the animal displayed an overt response (R), i.e. food (the stimulus) fire a reaction in a hungry animal. In other words, Thorndike noted explicitly observable behavioural changes when an S-R setting is presented to the animal. The gross changes depict by Thorndike manifested itself by the animals impulsive actions in what he described as trial-and-error learning in order to escape from the box.3 .2.2 accomplishment is gradualTime curves were plotted in all of Thorndikes experiments involving cats, dogs and chicks. The curves were a measurement of the time required for the animal to escape over repeated number of trials ranging from 24 to 117. The graphs allowed Thorndike to not only obtain the escape time, but also the rate of learning, which was represented by the slope of the curves.The time curves presented by all the animals showed signally similar patterns of behaviour. Analyses of the curves proved that learning took place in stages, i.e. in incremental go rather than huge jumps. This was seen in the gradual reduction of escape multiplication over the total number of trials. In one of the experiments, for instance, escape times for a cat varied from a high of 160 seconds to a low of 6 seconds over 24 trials, indicating that it had been steadily more efficient in its attempts to escape. Thorndike alluded to this when he described its initially random, chaotic de meanour gradually becoming more orderly and deliberate. It also proved that in some innate way, the animal had learnt from past experience.3.2.3 Effective behaviour diminishes ineffective behaviourBy analysing the time curves, Thorndike concluded that effective behaviour, i.e. actions that could lead to a fitted end, persisted. Conversely, ineffective behaviour diminished. In effect, there was a stamping in of some behaviours and a stamping out of others (Ormrod, 2008). This phenomenon was demonstrated in the way the animals became more expeditiously adept in their escape attempts as turn up by the speedy escape times. For example, in the experiment with a chick, the initial escape attempt was arbitrary and disorderly. But after many repetitions, the chick learnt to escape apace with little of the initial chaos. As Chance (1999) puts it Eventually the bird performed the act required for escape as soon as it was placed in the enclosure. In short, ineffective behaviour petered o ut. It could also be express that generally, other than through and through experiential learning, arrogant learning generates further unequivocal learning.3.2.4 generality of behaviourThorndike also found that an animal that had learnt to escape via a particular means, e.g. by clawing, tended to employ the same means when placed in a different box with a different escape device. It could be inferred that animals guess when first put in circumstances different than what they are old(prenominal) with, with their immediate prior experience influencing how they subsequently be construct. It is only after they have adapted to the new environment that they adopt a new learning approach.3.2.5 Discriminatory behaviourAnother aspect of learning that Thorndike noted from his experiments was that an animal is capable of cosmos discriminatory. This was evident, in one of his experiments, when (i) he made a statement to feed it and indeed fed it, and (ii) he made a statement to feed it, but he did NOT feed it. There far fewer errors in situation (i) than there were in (ii). This illustrated yet another perspective roughly the learning process that Thorndike delved into.3.2.6 Learning by observationThorndike asserted that animals, at least other than primates, do not learn by imitation, even after observing the happy behaviour of other members of their species. He effectively concluded that imitation could be discounted as an aspect of an animals successful behaviour.4. Theories propounded by Thorndike (Task (b) of the Assignment)Thorndikes experiments on animal intelligence gisted in the formation of a body of theories related to the learning process and move the scientific foundation for educational psychology. These learning theories were bound together by the surmise of connectionism. The principal credo of Thorndikes connectionism is that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli (S) and responses (R) (http//tip.psychology.org/thorn.ht ml).Connectionism debunked the overabundant view held by psychologists before Thorndike that animals learnt by the association of ideas, i.e. they could logically relate events and reason out solutions to a problem. Rather, through his experiments, Thorndike established that animals are provide with action impulses. It was these impulses, responding to the stimulus (S), that activated the trial-and-error behaviour of the animals trapped in the puzzle boxes. Their eventual successful escape was the result of the gradual learning they experienced arising from actually performing the act. It derived from an innate understanding that the correct actions (affirmative response) do the desired effect (getting to the food). In short, Thorndike believed that learning requires no ideas in the guide of the animal only the performance of the act itself was essential for a fine con age.The learning theories propounded by Thorndike, being subsets of connectionism, can be summarised as follo ws4.1 The honor of EffectResponses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened responses that are followed by discomfort are faded (Ormrod, 2008).This theory basically emphasizes the role of responsive actions and their significances. In the act of responding, the impulse that produced the successful act would be stamped in (strengthened), whilst all other non-successful impulses would be stamped out (weakened). Eventually the stamping in would become habitual responses to that same situation.In the puzzle box experiments, the S-R connection was established because the response resulted in a satisfying consequence (escape from box). This response was strengthened, as seen when the animal reduced its vain actions (e.g. clawing and scurrying aimlessly) in the repeated experiments, as shown by the much faster escape times.Applied to human learning, this law implies that positive stimuli breed correspondingly positive responses. In practical terms, in schools o r any learning institution, students should be provided with an environment that is conducive to learning. Libraries, for example, in general provide this conduciveness. As Ormrod (2008) puts it Students should experience academic tasks in contexts that harry pleasant emotions rather than in contexts that elicit anxiety, disappointment, or anger. This statement is consistent with the premise of Thorndikes fair play of Effect that satisfactory consequences strengthen the response.4.2 The Law of ReadinessA series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked. (http//tip.psychology.org/thorn.html)This theory arose in an experiment where a chick had to execute a sequence of actions to trigger a series of release devices for it to escape confinement. This sequence of acts is today known as a response chain.Extending the aspect of satisfying some goal to humans, it could be surmised that optimal learning takes place only when psyc he is pay off to act in so doing, the consequences are satisfying. On the other hand, forcing someone to act when he is not ready will be annoying. Forcing can be interpreted as interfering in someones goal-directed behaviour. Interference that leads to unwilling behaviour causes frustration.An analogy could be made of a child who is force-fed to eat vegetables. He whitethorn grow up to hate eating vegetables if it is forced upon him. However, if he himself is ready to eat them, the act will more likely lead to satisfaction. In the long run, vegetables are a must in his meals not having them may lead to annoyance.On a broader perspective, the level of readiness could be associate to a major factor in the efficacy of learning, viz. motivation. At its basic level, motivation is some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something. (Harmer, 2007). When a person is sufficiently incited to learn, the aforesaid internal drive should ready him/h er to learn. In the context of the classroom, a conducive learning environment (S) can also motivate (R) students (the S-R connection in the Law of Effect). Hence it can be said that the stimulus (S) breeds a response (R) (of readiness to learn) in turn the response (R) breeds another positive response (motivation). Here, there is a chain of positive responses in the learning process.4.3 The Law of ExerciseStimulus-response associations are strengthened through repetition. (Wikipedia, 2009)There are two sub-laws arising from the theory-a. The Law of Use The S-R connections are strengthened as they are used.b. The Law of Disuse The S-R connections are weakened as they are not used.In effect, this theory stresses the importance of repetition in the learning process. This was how the animals strengthened the S-R response progressively in Thorndikes experiments, resulting in the faster escape times evident in the time-curves. The exercise in the law refers to practice, as in the commonl y-held adage Practice achieves perfect. This is especially true, not only cognitively, but also in skills where psychomotor and kinaesthetic abilities are critical to the learning. For instance, the more successful golfers are more likely to be the ones who hone their skills through longer periods of repetitive drills, all other factors being equal. Motor mechanics achieve a higher level of power through constant and repetitive work.The importance of repetitive practice in learning cannot be overemphasized. A student can achieve a greater mathematical proficiency through tireless repetitive practice. In language learning, repetition has always played a part to kindle the structuring and re-structuring of noticed language (Harmer, 2007). Hence teachers in language classrooms put their students through choral drilling for them to internalise not only grammatical structures, but also the sentence intonation.The three laws of learning in a higher place are interestingly linked to e ach other. Connections are strengthened because S-R pairings occur many times (Law of exercise) and then rewarded (Law of effect) as well as forming a single sequence of actions (Law of readiness). Re-stating the link in another way, it can be said that in learning, motivation (readiness) is driven by incentives (effect). Both motivation and incentives can drive the learner towards practice (exercise) until ultimate success is achieved.5. Thorndikes perspective of animal learning (Task (c) of the Assignment)The MacMillan English Dictionary (2002) defines cogitate as the process of thinking about something in an intelligent and sensible way in order to make a decision. The Concise Oxford English (2002) dictionary defines thinking as using thought or rational judgement intelligent. But are two these definitions applicable universally, i.e. applicable to humans and animals?In a general sense, it may appear so. After all a process of thinking, in whatever way, has to take place before an animal acts. But does an animal think by using rational judgement? On the premise that animals do not rationalise, it follows then that animals do not think, at least not in the way that we humans do. Barrow and Woods (2006) declared that rationality is inextricably tied up with the notion of thinking. So it begs the question How do animals think? Given that thinking is needed for learning, how do animals learn?Thorndike, in his doctoral dissertation, asserted that animal learning has nothing to do with cerebrate or the association of ideas. Rather, he declared that it (learning) occurs as a result of trial and accidental success. He concluded this based on his puzzle box experiments where success (of escape) was due to the animals trial-and-error actions rather than a reasoned, logical, i.e. thinking, approach to the problem. According to Thorndike, the outwardly random, chaotic behaviour of the animal was due to the activation of its innate action impulses responding to the stimulus. There was no evident association of ideas in the solution. In laymans terms, animals do not put two and two together (as humans do) in a rational, logical way when they act, i.e. there is no reasoning. If animals could reason, then learning should be abrupt, NOT gradual as proven in Thorndikes time curves.What Thorndike offered, on the other hand, was that instead of the association of ideas, animals learnt through the association of sensations. This perspective was diametrically opposed to the views subscribed by comparative psychologists before him. They had contended that animals had cognitive insight, they being able to establish ideas and employ reasoning in their actions. Thorndikes experiments effectively debunked that long held contention. He said that there was no solid evidence that animals grasped ideas or learned through reasoning (Chance, 1999).In summary, Thorndike put forth four arguments in support of his beliefs. These arguments were empirically O.K. by the main findings of his puzzle box experiments. Chance (1999) expressed them thus(1) The behaviour of animals is impulsive and apparently random, not systematic and logical. As enunciated above (and in other sections), when presented with a stimulus, the response of a trapped animal is chaotic it follows that there is no contemplation or thoughtfulness, therefore no insight. Impulse rather than thought drives its actions.(2) The change in an animals behaviour is gradual, not abrupt. This assertion was validated by the time curves. The curves established that animals learn in incremental steps, not in sudden surges. This implies that there is an absence of reasoning (Chance, 1999).(3) The animals show no sign of understanding between action and consequence even after they have learnt to escape from the box. This arose from an experiment when a cat, which had get away by pulling a loop, would repeat the same action, even when the loop was absent in the repeated trials. It shows tha t the cats response had been strengthened due to former successes (The Law of effect). It again confirms Thorndikes view that animal learning does not embroil reasoning.(4) Animals learnt only if they performed the necessary act themselves. As described in 3.2.6 Learning by observation, animals do not learn by observing and imitating models. uncomplete would they learn if they are prompted to perform the act, as Thorndike discovered when he repeatedly assisted the cat to pull the release device. When left on its own, the cat could not associate the loop as a means of escape. This indicates that, unless the animal acted on its own volition, learning would not take place (the Law of readiness). It stands that animals cannot reason their way through a problem.6. ConclusionIt has been over cytosine years now since Thorndikes pioneering work in the study and psychology of learning, resulting in a learning perspective referred to as connectionism, emphasizing on behaviour as opposed to cognition. It laid the foundation for latter day psychologists to conduct a more objective, scientific research into the process of human and animal learning.Thorndikes puzzle box experiments primarily focussed on the S-R relationship that provided the catalytic impetus to learning. It led to the development of Thorndikes theories, which expounds how learning takes place. Through his experiments, Thorndike also disproved the views held by other psychologists that animals possess insight in their learning process. All in all, Thorndikes research provided a fresh perspective of the learning process which led to further research by others. In a way, this scenario is an instance of the S-R environment.(End)