Biology 1202 Notes

Thursday January 17 Mastering biology course id=MBPOLLACK01639 Life first appeared on earth about 4 billion years ago Origin of life is a hypothesis not a theory Very little oxygen in early earths atmosphere Spontaneous generation of life- random formation of life Millions of species on earth, up to 100 million the expirement of miller and urey showed what? test question a few centuries ago: eople thought that new living things appeared all of the time(spontaneous generation of life) ex: mold growing on food in the mid 1800s Louis Pasteur refuted the theory of spontaneous generation of life he basically left something out but sealed it off and nothing grew on it, then he left it out without being sealed and stuff grew the cell theory- all existing cells come from pre-existing cells about 50 trillion cells make up the human body but all came from the single diploid cell formed from conception conditions on early earth: tmosphere- similar to Jupiter today, no free oxygen, frequent storms with lots of lightning, volcano eruptions, meteor impacts, UV light from the sun, no ozone layer earth before life arose: about 4. 6 billion years old, known because of radiometric dating of meteorites and moon rocks life arose about 3. 8 billion years ago, known because of chemical traces in the rocks, fossilized bacteria was found in rocks 3. 5 billion years ago no spontaneous generation now but must have happened then how to assemble a living thing: accumulation of organic molecules atalyze reactions reproduce from stored genetic info separate the living thing from the outside environment 3 domains of life- bacteria, archaea, eukarya proteins are needed to synthesize more DNA DNA is used to synthesize RNA which is used to make protein†¦DNA-RNA-Protein Ribozymes: RNA molecule that can catalyze reactions, especially those involved in synthesis and processing of RNA itself Conclusion- earliest cells used RNA to store info Ribozymes used to catalyze reactions Thursday January 24th Our species has been here for about 200,000 years PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTIONTheory- general explanation of natural phenomen a, developed through extensive and reproducible observations Hypothesis- tentative explanation of observations, educated guess The origin of species was a book published in 1859 by Charles Darwin Main points of book: Evolution occurs in populations, not individuals Natural selection is the mechanism Observation 1-living things tend to reproduce as quickly as possible. Observation 2-constant population size over time (carrying capacity) Inference- competition for survival; differential reproductive success â€Å"I don’t like dogs.They all smell like dogs and poop on my lawn† variability in structures and behaviors all of this leads to natural selection, organisms best suited to an environment leave the most offspring evolution- the genetic makeup of a population changes over time, driven by natural selection evolution- a change in the allele frequency of a population over time study pakicetus slide 1/29/13 homologous structures suggest common ancestry some homologous st ructures look different today because of divergent evolution 300 million years ago is when we started to see the type of mammalian limbs similar to the structure today analogous tructures=convergent evolution analogous structure do NOT suggest common ancestry similar environmental forces select for similar structures in unrelated organisms vestigial structures- rudimentary form of and organ more fully formed in ancestor â€Å"evolutionary baggage† vestigial structures are a type of homologous structureWHAT IS DARWINS POINT ON EAR? ON TESTDevelopmental biology- the biology of studying organisms from the unicellular stage onward WATCH DARWIN VIDEO All living things have DNA and transcribe it into RNA using amino acids Artificial selection- insecticides, antibiotics etc. Know 3 types of natural selection 1. irectional selection 2. stabilizing selection 3. disruptive selection 1/31/13 evolution of populations GregorMendel- monk who did pea expirements and shed light on the rules of inheritance He worked at the same time as Darwin but his work was overlooked until the 20th century The modern synthesis(early 1940s) – a conceptual synthesis of Darwinian evolution, mendelian inheritance, and modern population genetics Evolution- a change in phenotypic constitution of a population owing to a situation on heritable variation among pheneotypes that changes the genotypic constitution of the population Phenotype- all expressed traits of an organismGenotype- the entire genetic makeup of an individual Evolution-a change in allele frequency in a population(change in the gene pool) Population genetics-examines the frequency, distribution, and inheritance of alleles within a population Hardy-weinberg equilibrium- the pop genetics theorem that states that the frequencies of alleles and enotypes in a population will remain constant unless acted upon by non-mendelian processes Allele frequencies- under strict mendelian inheritance, allele frequencies would remain con stant from on generation to the next(hardy-weinberg equilibrium) If there is no change in allele frequency there is no evolution Biological species concept- a population whose members can potentially interbreed in NATURE to produce viable reproductive offspring Reproductive barriers- isolate populations from one anotherSpeciation- the process by which new species form EXAM 1 Two requirement for speciation- reproductive isolation of populations(gene flow significantly reduced) and genetic divergence(divergent evolution) Tuesday feb 5 Convergent evolution- no common ancestor with that trait, similar environmental things caused the same evolution Divergent evolution- comes from common ancestors but over time the trait changes Proto means before External barriersSkin-physical barrier to microbial entry, inhospitable environment for growth; dry, dead cells at surface ; sweat/sebaceous glands secreting acids and natural antibiotics like lactic acid Mucuous mebranes of respiratory and dige stive tracts well-defined; secretions have antibacterial enzymes Cilia-line the inside of trachea; epithelial cells-smokers cough is from lack of cilia Stomach; if microbes are swallowed, acids(low pH) and protein-digesting enzymes destroy them Lines of defense:Nonspecififc internal defense: Phagocytosis cells: white blood cells in extracellular fluid, amoeboid shape,destroy microbes by phagocytosis-search out bacteria, viral particles, cellular debris-produced in bone marrow. Target stuff that is not in your cells **questions about lymphatic system on exam natural killer cells- white blood cells that destroy body cells infected by viruses and cancerous cells by punching hole in them inflammatory response- caused by large scale microbial invasion through a wound istamine released in response to damage which leads to an increased blood flow at and around the wound in order to wash out the wound. Which leads to inflammation other chemicals-> macrophages blood clotting fever= response to microbes establishing major infection. Low grade fever 100-102 can be beneficial slows down microbial reproduction enhances immune system immune response- reaction to specific type of microbe and provides future protection.Involves 2 types of WBC called lymphocytes-B cells and T cells B cells mature in bone marrow T cells are born in marrow but mature in thymus /26/13 humeral cells is same as B cells its called specific immune response because only the cell with the appropriate antibody responds 23,00 coding genes in our genome 3 types of amino acids- hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and ones that can make hydrosulfide bridges most proteins form well with other proteins an antibody is made of four different types of proteins so it takes 4 specific proteins for it to react? Immune system distinguishes self from non self by destroying cells that respond to the body’s own molecules Body randomly makes 100,000,000 different antibodies antigen can bind to 1 specific antibody epitope- the three different site where antibodies can bind on a single antigen allergies: type of immune response allergen-recognized as a foreign antigen and binds to B cell – coordinated by the humoral immunity response B cell makes plasma cells, releasing allergy antibodies into the bloodstreamAntibodies bind to histamine-containing cells in connective tissue Cells release histamine causing inflammatory response such as mucus 1. irst exposure to pollen stimulates B cells to produce allergy plasma cell 2. plasma cells produce allergy antibodies 3. allergy antibodies bind to mast cells 4. re-exposure to pollen results in pollen binding to allergy antibodies on mast cells 5. binding f pollen stimulates mast cells to release histamine, triggering the inflammatory response allergy medication antihistamines others inhibit production of histamine producing cells people without allergies lack genes for allergy-causing antibodies, or produce less of the antibody ormation of a pimple acne d evelops as a result of blockages In follicles formation of a plug or keratin and sebum(made of fat and the debris of dead fat-producing cells) the natural occurring bacteria propionibacterium acnes can cause inflammation the white blood cells build up(forming a whitehead) and then destroy (by phagocytosis) the bacteria to prevent infection chicken pox and shingles caused by same virus symptoms are very different after you have had the chicken pox, you become immune to the virus.It is impossible that you may have a slight reaction after re-exposure, such as a few spots and a slight fever. However, you will not get a full blown case of chicken pox more than once shingles: causing agent for herpes zoster is varicella zoster virus, a double stranded DNA virus most people are infected with this virus as children, and suffer from an episode of chickenpox the immune system eventually eliminates the virus from most locations, but it remains dormant in the ganglia adjacent to the spinal cord or the ganglion semilunare in the base of the skull

Unity, Faith and Discipline

Unity, Faith and Discipline Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan gave us three golden principles. They are Unity, Faith and Discipline. In his life he followed these principles and got Pakistan. Quaid-e-Azam once said, â€Å"The success of our achievement will depend upon our Unity, Faith and Discipline. † In this short sentence Quaid-e-Azam has given us the guide line to make Pakistan a success. If we follow these principles in our individual, social and political life, we can make Pakistan very powerful.Unfortunately, we have not paid much attention to these guiding principles. Unity is the first principle given by Quaid-e-Azam. It means co-operation with one another. Unity gives nation strength to face its enemies. Pakistan appeared on the map of the world on August 14, 1947. This miracle was achieved through the unity of the Muslims. In Islam all the Muslims are brethren to each other. In many of Quaid-e-Azam's speeches, he has stressed on unity and ad vised to be united in our work for the country. Discipline is the second principle. It means following certain principles.Discipline also means mental or moral training. By this principle Quaid-e-Azam means training to obedience and order. Through this principle Quaid-e-Azam united the Muslims of India into a disciplined organization. With the help of discipline he created unity among them. No civilized society can exist and progress without discipline. Islam also lays stress on discipline. Five times prayers, one month's fasting and annual pilgrimage to Makah are various forms of discipline. Without discipline, our energies are scattered and we can make no progress.Faith is third principle of progress. This is the centre principle or ideology. It can create unity and discipline in people. In Islam, faith in Allah and Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) is the basis of the Muslim community. It also means in us. If we want to develop our country, we should be sure for what we are working. Nothin g can be achieved without faith. Even now if we have faith in our religion, we can work wonders in a short time to make Pakistan strong in all walks of life. Written By: Misha Imran IX’CC J

Rio Tinto Plc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Rio Tinto Plc - Essay Example Japan will be importing huge amounts of aluminum, iron, and copper for its reconstruction projects. Three commodities which I liked from its product portfolio are gold, silver, and diamonds. The current price of gold in the international markets is $1452 per ounce (Goldprice, 2011). Diamonds have always been one of the most valuable stones in the world. Diamond jewelry can last a lifetime. There were other factors that attracted me towards selecting Rio Tinto as part of my portfolio. The firm had excellent revenues of $60,323 and net income of $14,324 in 2010. The net margin of the company is 23.74%. The company has a global workforce of 102,000 employees. The firm minimizes its risk by having a global operation located in Australia, North America, Asia, Europe and Southern Africa. The business risks of the company are also minimized by having a variety of products and working all sides of the mining industry supply chain. Two strengths of the company are its wide product range and strong market position. Two opportunities for the firm are the surging demand for gold and new investment and innovations. Throughout its history Rio Tinto has been known for its innovation in the mining industry. Rio Tinto is a solid investment that should pay off dividends both in t he short term and long term. HSBC Holdings Plc HSBC Holdings Plc is a banking and financial sector provider. The bank has an impressive customer portfolio of over 100 million customers worldwide. The company differentiates itself by providing a diverse range of banking and financial services. The firm has its corporate headquarters in London, United Kingdom. I liked the fact that the client base of the company included personal, commercial, corporate, and institutionalize investors. The firm has a network of 8000 offices across 88 countries. The banking industry has gone through a lot of changes since the global recession. The banks are now more risk averse which is a strategy that minimizes the risk of default on loans. Despite the losses that the industry incurred between 2007 and 2009 the banking industry had a solid recovery in 2010 (Plunkett Research, 2011). HSBC was one of the banks that were protected by the U.K. government during the recession. The fact that the government owns 41% of HSBC is an indicato r that the government will invest in HSBC to ensure its success. The global penetration of the company of having a physical presence in over 40% of the world’s countries is a good indicator of the success of the firm. Normally banks are more conservative in their selection of global expansion. The revenues of the company in 2010 were $62,096 million with net income of $5,834 million. The net margin off HSBC is 9.39%. The company has a global workforce of 289,435 employees. The market capitalization of the enterprise is $201,000 million. Two strengths of the bank are its strong capital base and brand perception. The company could take advantage of strategic acquisitions and growth by expansion in emerging markets. The firm could achieve significant growth by penetrating new locations. The favorable forecast for the industry was a factor that made me invest in HSBC. BT Group Plc BT Group Plc is a UK based communication company. The firm is considered one of the world’s l eading communication companies. BT has been able to penetrate the communications marketplace at over 170 countries around the world. The services offered by the company includ

Chronically ill and disabled people Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Chronically ill and disabled people - Assignment Example One day, the news of his arrest filled the air. We were all shocked that the John we knew was a criminal and was now behind bars. It was hard to believe because every time he would tell us how crime was evil and the very many young people lost due to criminal involvement. Here he was behind bars because he was caught with illegal drugs. It is difficult to understand how such an individual who seemed to have the right words for every situation was now the one accused of peddling drugs in the local community. In most instances, the police claim that he was the main depot from where most of the drugs would emanate and spread over to the community. He was the link to many of the people who were using drugs in the community. He was the one nurturing criminals and allowing them to roam the streets as they sought new clients for his products. He was always cool at school though he had to answer so many calls after classes. He would always excuse himself and we all thought it was good phone etiquette and did not read much into this. However, these flashbacks slowly became vivid as the police explained everything to us. All these calls were for the suppliers seeking some drugs or to delivery boys who were late to deliver the drugs. The police had trailed him for a while, though they could not capture him because of the lacking evidence. They wanted to capture him in the act and have as much evidence as possible to convict him. On one of the delivery days, they received a tipoff from one of their undercover agents of a sale.

Compare and contrast Confucianism, Daoism, and Shinto Essay

Compare and contrast Confucianism, Daoism, and Shinto - Essay Example etween them, namely a specific understanding of human nature and the characteristics of its relationship with the divine law either through the human mind (Confucianism) or by means of mystical knowledge (Daoism and Shinto). Confucians believed that the true essence of people is humanity or â€Å"jen† (Fisher 209). Self-cultivation was understood as the development of a â€Å"humane† beginning and the suppression of wild and evil factors. By the time of the emergence of Daoism, Confucianism was the official doctrine and the basis of the state structure. The ideal of Confucianism was presented by a notion of a â€Å"noble man,† the carrier of Confucian consciousness responsible for the harmony between Heaven and human nature. His virtues were seen in self-control, justice, reverence for elders, and social responsibility. His goal was public service since in Confucian ethics person is subject to the society (210). Confucian culture is elitist, since the main area of its distribution was presented by noble people (mainly officials engaged in the administration of the state). As a result, this led to a desire to govern all possible spheres of human life. These changes were achieved by l imiting the undesirable factors, mainly through the assimilation of norms of behavior and control (first external and then internal). The main virtue of a noble man was considered a permanent control over his/her own mental sphere and preservation of self-control. In this regards, introspection was designed to detect human failings. In turn, Daoism, also condemning human passions, understands the true human nature in its close connection with the cosmic principle that embodies universal laws of nature. The supreme goal of Daoism is the detection and the actualization of the â€Å"true principles† in man and complete submission to them. Man needs should seek to merge with the divine Dao, â€Å"a mystical reality that cannot be grasped by the mind† (195). There was initially no question of

Text analysis assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Text analysis assignment - Essay Example Lecter (Anthony Hopkins), who was a psychiatrist in the past, and a young girl Clarice Starling (Jodie Foster). It does not differ with originality - it has classic position - maniac and investigator along with a textbook ending - the final battle between them. She was hoping to get help from contained in the special conditions offender a clue to the psychology of the perpetrator (Ted Levine), who was not caught yet. Thus she tried to gain the trust of Lecter. She even doesnt suspect that the cunning and dangerous prisoner matured his own plan. A kind of game between them in order to fulfill their own goals is underway throughout the film, reaching its culmination in their final telephone conversation. The atmosphere of the movie itself as well as of the final scene is very awesome. It constantly keeps in suspense, though it seems that there is nothing particularly terrible. But it all fits in the overall storyline; its not some kind of cheap horror story, but a psychological thriller. I cannot name this movie as a scary one, but still it has some rather unpleasant moments. In ordinary thrillers you can predict when and where somebody will be killed. But in this movie you just do not know what to expect. The plot is also very interesting. The offender (Buffalo Bill) is not hidden from the very beginning, we know how he looks like, and we know what his name is. The very essence of the film is not to find out who is the culprit, but to show how that culprit was found with the help of Dr. Hannibal Lecter. Thus, that is a bit unusual detective story. No "horror" in it is not present, only a psychological thriller and beauty shot. Scenario seems to be simple and stupid by many points, but that is that actually possible approach to the reality, and this rejoices. Special attention is given to camerawork, as the film required a lot of psychological attention to close-ups of the characters, and with this work the

Creating Effective Information Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Creating Effective Information Systems - Essay Example This project was aimed at implementing a number of IT processes such as medical information transformation, electronic prescriptions services, and a web based booking system. Initially, it was estimated that this project will take no more than cost  £2.4 billion, however after almost a decade as well as with small to show considerable development and progress, the budget had risen to  £12.7 billion. It was a long-term project and a massive investment was done to make this project a success. However, the ultimate result of all the efforts appeared in the form of a huge failure. This project became one of the biggest IT project failures. There were a number of reasons and factors that played a major role in making this project a failure (Smolaks, 2012; Shuhab-u-Tariq, 2010; Hendy et al., 2005). This report outlines some of the major reasons that have led this project towards failure. This report also outlines the ways to deal with project risks. In the end this report also suggests the ways that could be adopted in an attempt to make this project a success. Up till now, a large number of reports and researchers have discussed the major reasons of this project failure. Without a doubt, it is the part of nature of a large project that it will go through a number of serious challenges throughout its development. In view of the fact that NPFIT project also involved the integration of other systems in order to allow them work collectively so this kind of projects experience serious challenges which ultimately led a project toward failure. In place of integrating several IT systems, an organization must develop and implement an individual system for the reason that a high intensity of complexity in within a project in consequence of huge scope could raise the risk of failure. However, this kind of project had not been implemented ever before so it was no possible to take protective measures by keeping in mind the scenario of other